Peptide research studies index
174 peer-reviewed publications behind the compounds researchers ask us about most — incretin analogues, tissue-repair peptides, mitochondrial-derived peptides and growth-axis analogues. Every entry links to the original record. Summaries describe what the publication reported; they are not claims about Pure Helix material and not guidance for human or veterinary use.
Compound
Year range
Research area
174 studies
mazdutide
Metabolic & incretin2026Study
Mazdutide versus placebo in Chinese adults with type 2 diabetes
Zhu D, et al. · Nature, 2026
Key takeaway
Reported glycaemic and body-weight outcomes for mazdutide compared with placebo in adults with type 2 diabetes.
Model & design
Phase 3, double-blind, randomised, placebo-controlled trial
BPC-157 (Body Protection Compound-157) + KLOW (KPV + LL-37 + Orexin-A + BPC-157 + TB-500)
Most citedTissue repair2025Study
Emerging Use of BPC-157 in Orthopaedic Sports Medicine: A Systematic Review
Multiple authors · Orthopaedic Journal of Sports Medicine, 2025
Key takeaway
Synthesised the preclinical BPC-157 literature on tendon, ligament, muscle and bone models and noted the absence of regulatory approval.
Model & design
Systematic review of preclinical and clinical reports
NAD+ (Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide)
Most citedMitochondrial & longevity2025Study
NAD+ Supplementation for Wellness: A Systematic Review
Review authors · Systematic review, 2025
Key takeaway
Found no eligible outcome trials of intravenous or intramuscular NAD+ itself for general wellness or ageing.
Model & design
Systematic review
mazdutide
Most citedMetabolic & incretin2025Study
Once-Weekly Mazdutide in Chinese Adults with Obesity or Overweight
Ji L, et al. · New England Journal of Medicine, 2025
Key takeaway
Reported dose-dependent body-weight change over 48 weeks with a GLP-1/glucagon dual receptor agonist versus placebo in Chinese adults.
Model & design
Phase 3, double-blind, randomised, placebo-controlled trial (GLORY-1)
BPC-157 (Body Protection Compound-157) +3 more
Tissue repair2025Study
Safety and Efficacy of Approved and Unapproved Peptide Therapies for Musculoskeletal Injuries
Multiple authors · PubMed-indexed review, 2025
Key takeaway
Reviewed the evidence base and regulatory status of peptides used in sports-medicine contexts.
Model & design
Narrative review
Tirzepatide (GLP-1 / GIP Dual Agonist)
Metabolic & incretin2025Study
Tirzepatide for Obesity Treatment and Diabetes Prevention
Jastreboff AM, et al. · New England Journal of Medicine, 2025
Key takeaway
Long-duration analysis reporting sustained weight reduction and reduced progression to type 2 diabetes in participants with prediabetes.
Model & design
176-week randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial
GHK-Cu (Copper Tripeptide-1) +2 more
Dermal & structural2025Study
Topically applied GHK as an anti-wrinkle peptide: advantages, problems and prospective
Mortazavi SM, et al. · BioImpacts, 2025
Key takeaway
Review of GHK delivery, stability and reported effects on dermal matrix proteins in topical formulation research.
Model & design
Narrative review
Tesamorelin (GHRH(1-44) Analog)
Growth axis2025Study
Effects of Tesamorelin on Neurocognitive Impairment in Persons With HIV and Abdominal Obesity
Ellis RJ, et al. · Journal of Infectious Diseases, 2025
Key takeaway
Reported neurocognitive outcomes alongside visceral fat change during tesamorelin treatment versus placebo.
Model & design
Randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial
SS-31 (Elamipretide, Cardiolipin-Binding Tetrapeptide)
Mitochondrial & longevity2025Study
Elamipretide: A Review of Its Structure, Mechanism of Action, and Therapeutic Potential
Tung C, et al. · International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 2025
Key takeaway
Reviewed cardiolipin binding, cristae stabilisation and the clinical trial programme for the tetrapeptide.
Model & design
Narrative review
Semaglutide (GLP-1 Receptor Agonist) + Tirzepatide (GLP-1 / GIP Dual Agonist)
Most citedMetabolic & incretin2024Study
Semaglutide vs Tirzepatide for Weight Loss in Adults With Overweight or Obesity
Rodriguez PJ, et al. · JAMA Internal Medicine, 2024
Key takeaway
Matched cohort comparison of on-treatment weight change between the two incretin agents.
Model & design
Retrospective matched cohort study
Semaglutide (GLP-1 Receptor Agonist) +2 more
Most citedMetabolic & incretin2024Study
Comparative effectiveness of GLP-1 receptor agonists on glycaemic control, body weight, and lipid profile for type 2 diabetes
Yao H, et al. · BMJ, 2024
Key takeaway
Network meta-analysis ranking GLP-1 receptor agonists across glycaemic, weight and lipid endpoints.
Model & design
Systematic review and network meta-analysis
Retatrutide (GLP-1 / GIP / Glucagon Triple Agonist)
Most citedMetabolic & incretin2024Study
Retatrutide for Metabolic Dysfunction-Associated Steatotic Liver Disease
Sanyal AJ, et al. · Nature Medicine, 2024
Key takeaway
Substudy reporting liver-fat change at 24 weeks, with reductions exceeding 80% in the 8 mg and 12 mg arms as reported.
Model & design
Phase 2a randomised, double-blind substudy
Tirzepatide (GLP-1 / GIP Dual Agonist)
Most citedMetabolic & incretin2024Study
Continued Treatment With Tirzepatide for Maintenance of Weight Reduction (SURMOUNT-4)
Aronne LJ, et al. · JAMA, 2024
Key takeaway
Randomised withdrawal trial: continued treatment preserved and extended weight reduction while withdrawal was followed by substantial regain.
Model & design
Phase 3 randomised withdrawal trial
Tirzepatide (GLP-1 / GIP Dual Agonist) + Semaglutide (GLP-1 Receptor Agonist)
Metabolic & incretin2024Study
Subcutaneously administered tirzepatide vs semaglutide for adults with type 2 diabetes
Karagiannis T, et al. · Diabetologia, 2024
Key takeaway
Head-to-head network meta-analysis of efficacy and safety endpoints across randomised trials.
Model & design
Systematic review and network meta-analysis
Glutathione (Reduced, GSH) + GLOW (GHK-Cu + BPC-157 + TB-500)
Dermal & structural2024Study
Glutathione for Skin Lightening and Melasma: A Systematic Review
Systematic review authors · Journal of Cosmetic Dermatology, 2024
Key takeaway
Reported modest oral and topical results; the authors concluded intravenous use lacked adequate efficacy evidence and raised safety concerns.
Model & design
Systematic review
mazdutide
Metabolic & incretin2024Study
Efficacy and Safety of Mazdutide in Chinese Patients With Type 2 Diabetes: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Phase 2 Trial
Zhang B, et al. · Diabetes Care, 2024
Key takeaway
Reported HbA1c and weight changes across mazdutide dose levels over 20 weeks versus placebo.
Model & design
Phase 2, double-blind, randomised, placebo-controlled trial
SS-31 (Elamipretide, Cardiolipin-Binding Tetrapeptide)
Mitochondrial & longevity2024Study
Long-term efficacy and safety of elamipretide in patients with Barth syndrome: 168-week open-label extension results of TAZPOWER
Thompson WR, et al. · Genetics in Medicine, 2024
Key takeaway
Reported sustained functional and cardiac measures across 168 weeks of open-label treatment.
Model & design
Open-label extension of a randomised trial
SS-31 (Elamipretide, Cardiolipin-Binding Tetrapeptide)
Mitochondrial & longevity2024Study
Genotype-specific effects of elamipretide in patients with primary mitochondrial myopathy: a post hoc analysis of the MMPOWER-3 trial
Karaa A, et al. · Orphanet Journal of Rare Diseases, 2024
Key takeaway
Post hoc analysis reporting differential six-minute walk outcomes by underlying mitochondrial genotype.
Model & design
Post hoc analysis of a phase 3 randomised controlled trial
NAD+ (Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide)
Mitochondrial & longevity2024Study
Ingestion of β-nicotinamide mononucleotide increased blood NAD levels, maintained walking speed, and improved sleep quality in older adults
Morifuji M, et al. · GeroScience, 2024
Key takeaway
Reported NAD+ elevation alongside walking-speed and sleep-quality measures over 12 weeks in older adults.
Model & design
Double-blind, randomised, placebo-controlled trial
Retatrutide (GLP-1 / GIP / Glucagon Triple Agonist) +2 more
Metabolic & incretin2024Study
Seven glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists and polyagonists for weight loss in patients with obesity or overweight: an updated systematic review and network meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials
Xie Z, et al. · Metabolism, 2024
Key takeaway
Network meta-analysis ranking incretin agonists and polyagonists on reported weight-change outcomes.
Model & design
Systematic review and network meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials
Semaglutide (GLP-1 Receptor Agonist)
Metabolic & incretin2024Study
Semaglutide and cardiovascular outcomes in patients with obesity and prevalent heart failure: a prespecified analysis of the SELECT trial
Deanfield J, et al. · The Lancet, 2024
Key takeaway
Prespecified SELECT analysis of cardiovascular outcomes in participants with obesity and pre-existing heart failure.
Model & design
Prespecified subgroup analysis of a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial
Semaglutide (GLP-1 Receptor Agonist)
Metabolic & incretin2024Study
Effects of Semaglutide on Chronic Kidney Disease in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes
Perkovic V, et al. · New England Journal of Medicine, 2024
Key takeaway
FLOW trial of once-weekly semaglutide on kidney and cardiovascular outcomes in type 2 diabetes with chronic kidney disease.
Model & design
Randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial
MOTS-c (Mitochondrial ORF of the 12S rRNA-c)
Mitochondrial & longevity2024Study
Mitochondrial-Derived Peptide MOTS-c Suppresses Ovarian Cancer Progression by Attenuating USP7-Mediated LARS1 Deubiquitination
Yin Y, et al. · Advanced Science, 2024
Key takeaway
Reported reduced MOTS-c levels in patient tumours and antitumour activity of exogenous peptide in models.
Model & design
Mechanistic in-vitro and in-vivo study
L-Carnitine (β-Hydroxy-γ-Trimethylaminobutyric Acid)
Metabolic & incretin2024Study
The Effects of L-Carnitine Supplementation on Weight Loss, Glycemic Control, and Cardiovascular Risk Factors in Patients With Type 2 Diabetes: A Systematic Review and Dose-response Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials
Mirrafiei A, et al. · Clinical Therapeutics, 2024
Key takeaway
Dose-response meta-analysis of 21 randomised trials on cardiometabolic markers in type 2 diabetes.
Model & design
Systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis
Retatrutide (GLP-1 / GIP / Glucagon Triple Agonist)
Most citedMetabolic & incretin2023Study
Triple-Hormone-Receptor Agonist Retatrutide for Obesity — A Phase 2 Trial
Jastreboff AM, et al. · New England Journal of Medicine, 2023
Key takeaway
Reported dose-dependent body-weight change over 48 weeks with a GIP/GLP-1/glucagon triple receptor agonist versus placebo.
Model & design
Phase 2, double-blind, randomised, placebo-controlled trial
Semaglutide (GLP-1 Receptor Agonist)
Most citedMetabolic & incretin2023Study
Semaglutide and Cardiovascular Outcomes in Obesity without Diabetes
Lincoff AM, et al. · New England Journal of Medicine, 2023
Key takeaway
SELECT reported major adverse cardiovascular event rates with semaglutide 2.4 mg versus placebo.
Model & design
Phase 3, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled outcomes trial
SLU-PP-332 (Pan-ERR Agonist)
Most citedMitochondrial & longevity2023Study
A synthetic ERR agonist (SLU-PP-332) enhances exercise capacity and oxidative metabolism
Billon C, et al. · Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, 2023
Key takeaway
Reported oxidative-metabolism and endurance changes in mice with a pan-ERR agonist.
Model & design
Rodent pharmacology study
SS-31 (Elamipretide, Cardiolipin-Binding Tetrapeptide)
Most citedMitochondrial & longevity2023Study
Elamipretide in Primary Mitochondrial Myopathy (MMPOWER-3)
Karaa A, et al. · JAMA Neurology, 2023
Key takeaway
The larger, decisive trial found no significant improvement in walk distance or fatigue at 24 weeks.
Model & design
Phase 3, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial
Semaglutide (GLP-1 Receptor Agonist)
Most citedMetabolic & incretin2023Study
Oral semaglutide 50 mg taken once per day in adults with overweight or obesity (OASIS 1)
Knop FK, et al. · The Lancet, 2023
Key takeaway
Reported body-weight change at week 68 with a once-daily oral formulation compared with placebo.
Model & design
Phase 3, double-blind, randomised, placebo-controlled trial
NAD+ (Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide)
Mitochondrial & longevity2023Study
Nicotinamide riboside improves muscle mitochondrial biogenesis, satellite cell differentiation, and gut microbiota
Lapatto HAK, et al. · Science Advances, 2023
Key takeaway
Monozygotic twin study of NAD+ precursor supplementation and mitochondrial endpoints.
Model & design
Human twin intervention study
Retatrutide (GLP-1 / GIP / Glucagon Triple Agonist)
Metabolic & incretin2023Study
Retatrutide in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes
Rosenstock J, et al. · The Lancet, 2023
Key takeaway
Reported glycaemic control, body-weight change and tolerability across dose arms versus comparator.
Model & design
Phase 2, randomised, double-blind, active- and placebo-controlled trial
IGF-1 LR3 (Long R3 Insulin-Like Growth Factor-1)
Growth axis2023Study
Recombinant Expression of IGF-1 and Long R3 IGF-1
Study authors · Protein Expression and Purification, 2023
Key takeaway
Production and laboratory characterisation research rather than a human therapeutic trial.
Model & design
Protein expression and characterisation study
SLU-PP-332 (Pan-ERR Agonist)
Metabolic & incretin2023Study
A Synthetic ERR Agonist Alleviates Metabolic Syndrome
Billon C, et al. · Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, 2023
Key takeaway
Showed SLU-PP-332 improved metabolic parameters associated with obesity and metabolic syndrome in mouse models.
Model & design
Preclinical rodent in-vivo study
NAD+ (Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide)
Mitochondrial & longevity2023Study
Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide metabolism and arterial stiffness after long-term nicotinamide mononucleotide supplementation
Katayoshi T, et al. · Scientific Reports, 2023
Key takeaway
Reported NAD+ metabolite shifts and arterial-stiffness measures after 12 weeks of supplementation versus placebo.
Model & design
Randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial
NAD+ (Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide)
Mitochondrial & longevity2023Study
MIB-626, an Oral Formulation of a Microcrystalline Unique Polymorph of β-Nicotinamide Mononucleotide, Increases Circulating NAD and its Metabolome
Pencina KM, et al. · Journals of Gerontology: Series A, 2023
Key takeaway
Reported pharmacokinetics and NAD+ metabolome changes with a crystalline NMN polymorph in middle-aged and older adults.
Model & design
Randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled phase 1 trial
BPC-157 (Body Protection Compound-157) +2 more
Tissue repair2023Study
Stable Gastric Pentadecapeptide BPC 157 May Recover Brain-Gut Axis and Gut-Brain Axis Function
Sikiric P, et al. · Pharmaceuticals, 2023
Key takeaway
Review collating preclinical reports of BPC 157 activity across gut and central nervous system injury models.
Model & design
Narrative review of preclinical literature
L-Carnitine (β-Hydroxy-γ-Trimethylaminobutyric Acid)
Metabolic & incretin2023Study
Effects of L-Carnitine Intake on Exercise-Induced Muscle Damage and Oxidative Stress: A Narrative Scoping Review
Caballero-García A, et al. · Nutrients, 2023
Key takeaway
Scoping review summarising reported oxidative-stress and muscle-damage marker outcomes across supplementation protocols.
Model & design
Narrative scoping review
SLU-PP-332 (Pan-ERR Agonist)
Mitochondrial & longevity2023Study
Synthetic ERRα/β/γ Agonist Induces an ERRα-Dependent Acute Aerobic Exercise Response and Enhances Exercise Capacity
Billon C, et al. · ACS Chemical Biology, 2023
Key takeaway
Characterised the pan-ERR agonist as inducing an exercise-like transcriptional programme in rodent skeletal muscle.
Model & design
Preclinical mechanistic and in-vivo mouse study
NAD+ (Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide)
Mitochondrial & longevity2023Study
The Safety and Antiaging Effects of Nicotinamide Mononucleotide in Human Clinical Trials: an Update
Song Q, et al. · Advances in Nutrition, 2023
Key takeaway
Summarised completed and ongoing human trials of NMN supplementation and their safety reporting.
Model & design
Narrative review of human clinical trials
SS-31 (Elamipretide, Cardiolipin-Binding Tetrapeptide)
Mitochondrial & longevity2023Study
Elamipretide (SS-31) Attenuates Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis by Inhibiting the Nrf2-Dependent NLRP3 Inflammasome in Macrophages
Nie Y, et al. · Antioxidants, 2023
Key takeaway
Tested the mitochondria-targeted tetrapeptide in a bleomycin fibrosis model and in macrophage culture.
Model & design
In-vivo mouse model with in-vitro mechanistic work
Tirzepatide (GLP-1 / GIP Dual Agonist)
Most citedMetabolic & incretin2022Study
Tirzepatide Once Weekly for the Treatment of Obesity
Jastreboff AM, et al. · New England Journal of Medicine, 2022
Key takeaway
SURMOUNT-1 reported mean percentage weight change at week 72 across tirzepatide dose arms compared with placebo.
Model & design
Phase 3, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial
NAD+ (Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide)
Most citedMitochondrial & longevity2022Study
Oral Administration of Nicotinamide Mononucleotide Is Safe and Efficiently Increases Blood Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide Levels in Healthy Subjects
Okabe K, et al. · Frontiers in Nutrition, 2022
Key takeaway
Reported dose-dependent increases in whole-blood NAD+ with no serious adverse events over 12 weeks.
Model & design
Randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial in healthy adults
Retatrutide (GLP-1 / GIP / Glucagon Triple Agonist)
Metabolic & incretin2022Study
LY3437943, a novel triple glucagon, GIP, and GLP-1 receptor agonist for glycemic control and weight loss: From discovery to clinical proof of concept
Coskun T, et al. · Cell Metabolism, 2022
Key takeaway
Described receptor pharmacology and preclinical characterisation of the triple agonist alongside first-in-human exposure data.
Model & design
Preclinical receptor pharmacology with phase 1 clinical data
PT-141 (Bremelanotide, Melanocortin Receptor Agonist)
Neuro & cognitive2022Study
The neurobiology of bremelanotide for the treatment of hypoactive sexual desire disorder in premenopausal women
Pfaus JG, et al. · CNS Spectrums, 2022
Key takeaway
Reviewed melanocortin MC3R/MC4R signalling in hypothalamic circuits proposed to underlie the compound's central activity.
Model & design
Mechanistic review of preclinical and clinical data
MOTS-c (Mitochondrial ORF of the 12S rRNA-c)
Mitochondrial & longevity2022Study
MOTS-c increases in skeletal muscle following long-term physical activity and improves acute exercise performance after a single dose
Dieli-Conwright CM, et al. · Physiological Reports, 2022
Key takeaway
Reported skeletal-muscle MOTS-c changes with training and after a single administration in rodents.
Model & design
Rodent in-vivo study
Semaglutide (GLP-1 Receptor Agonist)
Metabolic & incretin2022Study
Two-Year Effects of Semaglutide in Adults with Overweight or Obesity (STEP 5)
Garvey WT, et al. · Nature Medicine, 2022
Key takeaway
Reported sustained body-weight reduction through 104 weeks versus placebo.
Model & design
Phase 3, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial
Semaglutide (GLP-1 Receptor Agonist)
Metabolic & incretin2022Study
Weight Regain and Cardiometabolic Effects After Withdrawal of Semaglutide (STEP 1 extension)
Wilding JPH, et al. · Diabetes, Obesity and Metabolism, 2022
Key takeaway
Reported that a large share of lost weight returned in the year after treatment was discontinued.
Model & design
One-year off-treatment extension of a randomised trial
NAD+ (Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide)
Mitochondrial & longevity2022Study
Chronic nicotinamide mononucleotide supplementation elevates blood nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide levels and alters muscle function in healthy older men
Igarashi M, et al. · npj Aging, 2022
Key takeaway
Reported raised blood NAD+ concentrations and changes in gait and muscle measures after 12 weeks in older men.
Model & design
Randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial
NAD+ (Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide)
Mitochondrial & longevity2022Study
Effect of 12-Week Intake of Nicotinamide Mononucleotide on Sleep Quality, Fatigue, and Physical Performance in Older Japanese Adults
Kim M, et al. · Nutrients, 2022
Key takeaway
Reported sleep, fatigue and lower-limb performance measures with afternoon versus morning dosing over 12 weeks.
Model & design
Randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial
Glutathione (Reduced, GSH)
Dermal & structural2022Study
The effects of the oral supplementation of L-Cystine associated with reduced L-Glutathione-GSH on human skin pigmentation: a randomized, double-blinded, benchmark- and placebo-controlled clinical trial
Duperray J, et al. · Journal of Cosmetic Dermatology, 2022
Key takeaway
Twelve-week trial in 124 participants measuring skin lightness and dark-spot area under combined oral supplementation.
Model & design
Randomised, double-blind, benchmark- and placebo-controlled trial
Semaglutide (GLP-1 Receptor Agonist)
Most citedMetabolic & incretin2021Study
Once-Weekly Semaglutide in Adults with Overweight or Obesity
Wilding JPH, et al. · New England Journal of Medicine, 2021
Key takeaway
STEP 1 reported a mean body-weight change of −14.9% at week 68 with semaglutide 2.4 mg versus −2.4% with placebo.
Model & design
Phase 3, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial
MOTS-c (Mitochondrial ORF of the 12S rRNA-c)
Most citedMitochondrial & longevity2021Study
MOTS-c is an exercise-induced mitochondrial-encoded regulator of age-dependent physical decline and muscle homeostasis
Reynolds JC, et al. · Nature Communications, 2021
Key takeaway
Reported exercise-induced MOTS-c expression and effects on physical capacity in aged mice.
Model & design
Rodent in-vivo and human observational study
Methylcobalamin (Vitamin B12 Coenzyme Form)
Most citedNeuro & cognitive2021Study
Vitamin B12 Supplementation in Diabetic Neuropathy
Didangelos T, et al. · Nutrients, 2021
Key takeaway
Randomised controlled trial reporting improvement in several neuropathy measures over twelve months of oral methylcobalamin.
Model & design
Randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled human trial
Tirzepatide (GLP-1 / GIP Dual Agonist) + Semaglutide (GLP-1 Receptor Agonist)
Most citedMetabolic & incretin2021Study
Tirzepatide versus Semaglutide Once Weekly in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes
Frías JP, et al. · New England Journal of Medicine, 2021
Key takeaway
Head-to-head comparison reporting HbA1c and body-weight differences between the dual agonist and semaglutide 1 mg over 40 weeks.
Model & design
Phase 3, open-label, randomised, active-controlled trial (SURPASS-2)
MOTS-c (Mitochondrial ORF of the 12S rRNA-c)
Mitochondrial & longevity2021Study
Acute endurance exercise stimulates circulating levels of mitochondrial-derived peptides in humans
Woodhead JST, et al. · Journal of Applied Physiology, 2021
Key takeaway
Measured circulating humanin and MOTS-c responses to an acute endurance bout in human participants.
Model & design
Human exercise physiology study
Oxytocin Acetate (Oxytocin Peptide Hormone)
Neuro & cognitive2021Study
Intranasal Oxytocin and Food Intake
Lawson EA, et al. · Current Opinion in Endocrinology & Obesity, 2021
Key takeaway
Reviewed human food-intake and craving research; reported results were inconsistent across studies.
Model & design
Narrative review of human studies
L-Carnitine (β-Hydroxy-γ-Trimethylaminobutyric Acid)
Metabolic & incretin2021Study
Clinical Effects of L-Carnitine Supplementation on Physical Performance
Systematic review authors · Nutrients, 2021
Key takeaway
Reported possible improvements in exercise capacity and fatigue, with results varying by population and protocol.
Model & design
Systematic review of human trials
Dihexa (N-Hexanoic-Tyr-Ile-(6) Aminohexanoic Amide)
Neuro & cognitive2021Study
AngIV-Analog Dihexa Rescues Cognitive Impairment and Recovers Memory in the APP/PS1 Mouse via the PI3K/AKT Signaling Pathway
Chai SC, et al. · Journal of Alzheimer's Disease, 2021
Key takeaway
Found dihexa improved cognitive performance and memory in an APP/PS1 Alzheimer's mouse model via PI3K/AKT signalling.
Model & design
Preclinical rodent in-vivo study
Methylcobalamin (Vitamin B12 Coenzyme Form)
Neuro & cognitive2021Study
A randomized comparative study of methylcobalamin, methylcobalamin plus pregabalin and methylcobalamin plus duloxetine in patients of painful diabetic neuropathy
Sharma A, et al. · Indian Journal of Pharmacology, 2021
Key takeaway
Compared methylcobalamin alone with combination regimens and reported greater pain relief from the combinations in diabetic neuropathy.
Model & design
Randomised comparative clinical trial
SS-31 (Elamipretide, Cardiolipin-Binding Tetrapeptide)
Mitochondrial & longevity2021Study
A phase 2/3 randomized clinical trial followed by an open-label extension to evaluate the effectiveness of elamipretide in Barth syndrome
Reid Thompson W, et al. · Genetics in Medicine, 2021
Key takeaway
Reported functional and cardiac endpoints for a cardiolipin-targeting peptide in a genetic disorder of mitochondrial cardiolipin metabolism.
Model & design
Phase 2/3 randomised crossover trial with open-label extension
Oxytocin Acetate (Oxytocin Peptide Hormone)
Neuro & cognitive2021Study
Oxytocin-induced increase in N,N-dimethylglycine and time course of changes in oxytocin efficacy for autism social core symptoms
Kato Y, et al. · Molecular Autism, 2021
Key takeaway
Combined metabolomic profiling with a time-course analysis of repeated intranasal oxytocin in adults with autism spectrum disorder.
Model & design
Randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial with metabolomic analysis
BPC-157 (Body Protection Compound-157) +2 more
Tissue repair2021Study
Stable Gastric Pentadecapeptide BPC 157 and Wound Healing
Seiwerth S, et al. · Frontiers in Pharmacology, 2021
Key takeaway
Reviewed reported wound-healing models and proposed mechanisms for the pentadecapeptide.
Model & design
Narrative review
Methylcobalamin (Vitamin B12 Coenzyme Form)
Neuro & cognitive2020Study
Mecobalamin for Peripheral Neuropathy: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis
Zhang M, et al. · Nutrients, 2020
Key takeaway
Meta-analysis reporting more persuasive results for combination therapy than for methylcobalamin alone.
Model & design
Systematic review and meta-analysis
Semax (ACTH(4-7) Pro-Gly-Pro Analog) + Selank (Tuftsin Analog)
Neuro & cognitive2020Study
Semax, Selank and Functional Connectivity
Study authors · Frontiers in Pharmacology, 2020
Key takeaway
In 52 healthy participants, acute changes in functional connectivity were reported; clinical implications remain uncertain.
Model & design
Randomised human neuroimaging study
L-Carnitine (β-Hydroxy-γ-Trimethylaminobutyric Acid)
Metabolic & incretin2020Study
The Effect of L-Carnitine Supplementation on Exercise-Induced Muscle Damage: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Clinical Trials
Yarizadh H, et al. · Journal of the American College of Nutrition, 2020
Key takeaway
Pooled randomised trials reporting changes in creatine kinase, LDH and myoglobin markers after supplementation.
Model & design
Systematic review and meta-analysis
Oxytocin Acetate (Oxytocin Peptide Hormone)
Neuro & cognitive2020Study
A registered replication study on oxytocin and trust
Declerck CH, et al. · Nature Human Behaviour, 2020
Key takeaway
Preregistered multi-site replication testing whether intranasal oxytocin raises trust behaviour in an economic game.
Model & design
Multi-site, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled registered replication
PT-141 (Bremelanotide, Melanocortin Receptor Agonist)
Most citedNeuro & cognitive2019Study
Bremelanotide for the Treatment of Hypoactive Sexual Desire Disorder: Two Randomized Phase 3 Trials
Kingsberg SA, et al. · Obstetrics & Gynecology, 2019
Key takeaway
RECONNECT reported changes in desire and distress scores with the melanocortin receptor agonist versus placebo, with nausea and flushing the most common reported events.
Model & design
Two identical phase 3, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trials
NAD+ (Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide)
Most citedMitochondrial & longevity2019Study
Nicotinamide Riboside Augments the Aged Human Skeletal Muscle NAD+ Metabolome
Elhassan YS, et al. · Cell Reports, 2019
Key takeaway
Reported NAD+ metabolome and anti-inflammatory transcriptomic signatures in aged human muscle.
Model & design
Randomised, placebo-controlled human trial
MOTS-c (Mitochondrial ORF of the 12S rRNA-c)
Mitochondrial & longevity2019Study
The mitochondrial-derived peptide MOTS-c is a regulator of plasma metabolites and enhances insulin sensitivity
Reynolds JC, et al. · Physiological Genomics, 2019
Key takeaway
Used metabolomics to show MOTS-c shifted plasma metabolite profiles associated with improved insulin sensitivity in obese mice.
Model & design
Preclinical rodent in-vivo study
HCG (Human Chorionic Gonadotropin)
Growth axis2019Study
Human chorionic gonadotropin monotherapy for the treatment of hypogonadal symptoms in men with total testosterone > 300 ng/dL
Madhusoodanan V, et al. · International Braz J Urol, 2019
Key takeaway
Retrospective analysis of symptom and testosterone changes under hCG monotherapy above the usual treatment threshold.
Model & design
Retrospective cohort study
HCG (Human Chorionic Gonadotropin)
Growth axis2019Study
Testosterone undecanoate supplementation together with human chorionic gonadotropin does not impair spermatogenesis in males with isolated hypogonadotropic hypogonadism
Chen YW, et al. · Asian Journal of Andrology, 2019
Key takeaway
Compared spermatogenesis outcomes for hCG alone versus hCG plus testosterone undecanoate.
Model & design
Retrospective cohort study
MOTS-c (Mitochondrial ORF of the 12S rRNA-c)
Most citedMitochondrial & longevity2018Study
The Mitochondrial-Encoded Peptide MOTS-c Translocates to the Nucleus to Regulate Nuclear Gene Expression in Response to Metabolic Stress
Kim KH, et al. · Cell Metabolism, 2018
Key takeaway
Showed that under metabolic stress MOTS-c translocates to the nucleus and regulates gene expression through the Nrf2 antioxidant pathway.
Model & design
In-vitro and preclinical rodent study
BPC-157 (Body Protection Compound-157) + Wolverine (BPC-157 + TB-500)
Tissue repair2018Study
BPC 157 and Standard Angiogenic Growth Factors. Gastrointestinal Tract Healing, Lessons from Tendon, Ligament, Muscle and Bone Healing
Seiwerth S, et al. · Current Pharmaceutical Design, 2018
Key takeaway
Reviewed reported interactions between the pentadecapeptide and VEGF/EGF-driven angiogenesis across rodent injury models.
Model & design
Review of preclinical rodent studies
L-Carnitine (β-Hydroxy-γ-Trimethylaminobutyric Acid)
Metabolic & incretin2018Study
L-Carnitine Supplementation in Recovery after Exercise
Fielding R, Riede L, Lugo JP, Bellamine A · Nutrients, 2018
Key takeaway
Reviewed human trials of carnitine supplementation and markers of post-exercise recovery.
Model & design
Review of randomised human trials
Oxytocin Acetate (Oxytocin Peptide Hormone)
Neuro & cognitive2018Study
Oxytocin and Human Brain Activity: A Systematic Review
Grace SA, et al. · Psychoneuroendocrinology, 2018
Key takeaway
Systematic review of human imaging work: effects on brain activity were consistent, while behavioural findings varied by context, population and route.
Model & design
Systematic review of human neuroimaging studies
SS-31 (Elamipretide, Cardiolipin-Binding Tetrapeptide)
Mitochondrial & longevity2018Study
Randomized Dose-Escalation Trial of Elamipretide in Primary Mitochondrial Myopathy
Karaa A, et al. · Neurology, 2018
Key takeaway
Early trial reporting improvement in six-minute walk distance in adults with primary mitochondrial myopathy.
Model & design
Randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled dose-escalation trial
BPC-157 (Body Protection Compound-157) + KLOW (KPV + LL-37 + Orexin-A + BPC-157 + TB-500)
Tissue repair2018Study
BPC-157 and Tissue Repair
Seiwerth S, et al. · Current Pharmaceutical Design, 2018
Key takeaway
Summarised tendon, ligament, muscle and gastrointestinal models; the evidence base is overwhelmingly animal research.
Model & design
Review of preclinical literature
GHK-Cu (Copper Tripeptide-1) +2 more
Dermal & structural2018Study
Regenerative and Protective Actions of the GHK-Cu Peptide
Pickart L, Margolina A · International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 2018
Key takeaway
Reviewed tissue remodelling, wound repair, antioxidant signalling and gene expression; largely mechanistic and preclinical.
Model & design
Review
Semax (ACTH(4-7) Pro-Gly-Pro Analog)
Neuro & cognitive2018Study
Semax and the Brain Default Mode Network
Study authors · Frontiers in Neuroscience, 2018
Key takeaway
Small human imaging study reporting altered brain network activity, not established cognitive benefit.
Model & design
Human fMRI study
Selank (Tuftsin Analog)
Neuro & cognitive2018Study
Molecular Aspects of Selank Action
Kolomin T, et al. · Journal of Molecular Neuroscience, 2018
Key takeaway
Mechanistic work on modulation of GABA receptor binding; supporting literature is largely preclinical.
Model & design
Mechanistic review
Semax (ACTH(4-7) Pro-Gly-Pro Analog)
Neuro & cognitive2018Study
The efficacy of semax in the treatment of patients at different stages of ischemic stroke
Skvortsova VI, et al. · Zhurnal Nevrologii i Psikhiatrii imeni S.S. Korsakova, 2018
Key takeaway
Evaluated semax against BDNF levels, motor performance and functional recovery in ischaemic stroke patients at different rehabilitation stages.
Model & design
Clinical interventional study
L-Carnitine (β-Hydroxy-γ-Trimethylaminobutyric Acid)
Metabolic & incretin2018Study
L-Carnitine Supplementation in Recovery after Exercise
Fielding R, et al. · Nutrients, 2018
Key takeaway
Review of trials examining carnitine and markers of muscle damage, soreness and recovery after exercise.
Model & design
Narrative review
Dihexa (N-Hexanoic-Tyr-Ile-(6) Aminohexanoic Amide)
Neuro & cognitive2018Study
Cognitive benefits of angiotensin IV and angiotensin-(1-7): A systematic review of experimental studies
Ho JK, Nation DA · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 2018
Key takeaway
Systematically synthesised preclinical evidence on memory outcomes for angiotensin IV and related peptides.
Model & design
Systematic review of preclinical experimental studies
orexin-b
Neuro & cognitive2017Study
Orexin/Hypocretin System: Role in Food and Drug Overconsumption
Barson JR, Leibowitz SF · International Review of Neurobiology, 2017
Key takeaway
Review of preclinical evidence linking orexin signalling to motivated intake of palatable food and drugs of abuse.
Model & design
Narrative review of preclinical literature
L-Carnitine (β-Hydroxy-γ-Trimethylaminobutyric Acid)
Metabolic & incretin2017Study
Carnitine for Cancer-Related Fatigue
Marx W, et al. · Journal of Pain and Symptom Management, 2017
Key takeaway
Higher-quality studies did not support a meaningful fatigue benefit — countervailing evidence retained here deliberately.
Model & design
Systematic review and meta-analysis
NAD+ (Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide)
Mitochondrial & longevity2017Study
Human NAD+ Metabolome During Intravenous Infusion
Airhart SE, et al. · PLOS ONE, 2017
Key takeaway
Small pilot measuring biological processing during a six-hour infusion; clinical effectiveness was not assessed.
Model & design
Open-label pilot pharmacokinetic study
SS-31 (Elamipretide, Cardiolipin-Binding Tetrapeptide)
Mitochondrial & longevity2017Study
Elamipretide in Heart Failure with Reduced Ejection Fraction
Daubert MA, et al. · Circulation: Heart Failure, 2017
Key takeaway
Small randomised trial reporting tolerability and short-term changes in ventricular volumes at the highest dose.
Model & design
Randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial
GHK-Cu (Copper Tripeptide-1) +2 more
Neuro & cognitive2017Study
The Effect of the Human Peptide GHK on Gene Expression Relevant to Nervous System Function and Cognitive Decline
Pickart L, Vasquez-Soltero JM, Margolina A · Brain Sciences, 2017
Key takeaway
Analysed GHK-associated gene-expression signatures reported in neuronal and systemic datasets; computational and preclinical, not clinical.
Model & design
Review and gene-expression analysis
GHK-Cu (Copper Tripeptide-1) + GLOW (GHK-Cu + BPC-157 + TB-500)
Dermal & structural2017Study
The Human Tripeptide GHK-Cu and Cancer Gene Expression
Pickart L, Vasquez-Soltero JM, Margolina A · International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 2017
Key takeaway
Reviewed gene-expression datasets associating GHK with tissue-remodelling and repair programmes; hypothesis-generating only.
Model & design
Review
Selank (Tuftsin Analog)
Neuro & cognitive2017Study
Peptide Selank Enhances the Effect of Diazepam in Reducing Anxiety in Unpredictable Chronic Mild Stress Conditions in Rats
Kolyasnikova KN, et al. · Bulletin of Experimental Biology and Medicine, 2017
Key takeaway
Showed selank enhanced diazepam's anxiolytic effect in a chronic mild stress rat model.
Model & design
Preclinical rodent in-vivo study
MOTS-c (Mitochondrial ORF of the 12S rRNA-c)
Mitochondrial & longevity2016Study
MOTS-c as a Mitochondrial-Derived Metabolic Peptide
Lee C, Kim KH, Cohen P · Free Radical Biology and Medicine, 2016
Key takeaway
Foundational review across glucose metabolism, obesity, exercise and ageing; human therapeutic evidence remains insufficient.
Model & design
Review
Methylcobalamin (Vitamin B12 Coenzyme Form) + L-Carnitine (β-Hydroxy-γ-Trimethylaminobutyric Acid)
Neuro & cognitive2016Study
Effects of acetyl-L-carnitine and methylcobalamin for diabetic peripheral neuropathy: a multicenter, randomized, double-blind, controlled trial
Li S, et al. · Experimental and Therapeutic Medicine, 2016
Key takeaway
Assessed combined acetyl-L-carnitine and methylcobalamin treatment for diabetic peripheral neuropathy across multiple centres.
Model & design
Randomised double-blind controlled multicentre trial
SS-31 (Elamipretide, Cardiolipin-Binding Tetrapeptide)
Mitochondrial & longevity2016Study
Chronic Therapy With Elamipretide (MTP-131), a Novel Mitochondria-Targeting Peptide, Improves Left Ventricular and Mitochondrial Function in Dogs With Advanced Heart Failure
Sabbah HN, et al. · Circulation: Heart Failure, 2016
Key takeaway
Found chronic elamipretide therapy improved left ventricular and mitochondrial function in a canine model of advanced heart failure.
Model & design
Preclinical large-animal in-vivo study
PT-141 (Bremelanotide, Melanocortin Receptor Agonist)
Growth axis2016Study
Bremelanotide for female sexual dysfunctions in premenopausal women: a randomized, placebo-controlled dose-finding trial
Clayton AH, et al. · Women's Health (London), 2016
Key takeaway
Reported changes in satisfying sexual events and Female Sexual Function Index desire and arousal domains across three subcutaneous dose levels over 12 weeks.
Model & design
Randomised, placebo-controlled dose-finding trial
Oxytocin Acetate (Oxytocin Peptide Hormone)
Neuro & cognitive2016Study
Promising evidence and remaining issues regarding the clinical application of oxytocin in autism spectrum disorders
Yamasue H · Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 2016
Key takeaway
Reviewed randomised trial evidence for intranasal oxytocin on social reciprocity outcomes and the open methodological questions.
Model & design
Narrative review of clinical trial evidence
L-Carnitine (β-Hydroxy-γ-Trimethylaminobutyric Acid)
Neuro & cognitive2016Study
l-Carnitine improves cognitive and renal functions in a rat model of chronic kidney disease
Abu Ahmad N, et al. · Physiology & Behavior, 2016
Key takeaway
Measured renal markers and cognitive task performance after supplementation in a rodent chronic kidney disease model.
Model & design
Controlled animal (rat) mechanistic study
Semaglutide (GLP-1 Receptor Agonist)
Most citedMetabolic & incretin2015Study
Discovery of the Once-Weekly Glucagon-Like Peptide-1 (GLP-1) Analogue Semaglutide
Lau J, et al. · Journal of Medicinal Chemistry, 2015
Key takeaway
Described the C-18 diacid acylation and Aib-8 substitution behind DPP-4 resistance and albumin binding.
Model & design
Medicinal chemistry and preclinical characterisation
MOTS-c (Mitochondrial ORF of the 12S rRNA-c)
Most citedMitochondrial & longevity2015Study
The mitochondrial-derived peptide MOTS-c promotes metabolic homeostasis and reduces obesity and insulin resistance
Lee C, et al. · Cell Metabolism, 2015
Key takeaway
First description of MOTS-c as a regulator of the folate-methionine cycle and AMPK activation.
Model & design
Cell-culture and rodent in-vivo study
MOTS-c (Mitochondrial ORF of the 12S rRNA-c)
Most citedMitochondrial & longevity2015Study
MOTS-c Promotes Metabolic Homeostasis and Reduces Obesity and Insulin Resistance
Lee C, et al. · Cell Metabolism, 2015
Key takeaway
Landmark paper establishing metabolic effects of a mitochondrial-derived peptide in experimental models.
Model & design
Preclinical in-vivo and cell studies
GHK-Cu (Copper Tripeptide-1) +2 more
Most citedDermal & structural2015Study
GHK Peptide as a Natural Modulator of Multiple Cellular Pathways in Skin Regeneration
Pickart L, Vasquez-Soltero JM, Margolina A · BioMed Research International, 2015
Key takeaway
Collated reported effects of GHK on collagen, antioxidant and remodelling pathways in skin models.
Model & design
Review
HCG (Human Chorionic Gonadotropin)
Most citedGrowth axis2015Study
Sequential Versus Continual Purified Urinary FSH/hCG in Men With Idiopathic Hypogonadotropic Hypogonadism
Rastrelli G, et al. · Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, 2015
Key takeaway
Compared sequential and continual FSH/hCG regimens and reported both induced spermatogenesis in idiopathic hypogonadotropic hypogonadism.
Model & design
Randomised clinical trial
Glutathione (Reduced, GSH) + GLOW (GHK-Cu + BPC-157 + TB-500)
Immune & inflammatory2015Study
Randomized controlled trial of oral glutathione supplementation on body stores of glutathione
Richie JP, et al. · European Journal of Nutrition, 2015
Key takeaway
Reported changes in body glutathione stores over six months of supplementation versus placebo.
Model & design
Randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial
Dihexa (N-Hexanoic-Tyr-Ile-(6) Aminohexanoic Amide)
Neuro & cognitive2015Study
The Brain Hepatocyte Growth Factor/c-Met Receptor System: A New Target for the Treatment of Alzheimer's Disease
McCoy AT, et al. · Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, 2015
Key takeaway
Presented rodent data and a mechanistic case that HGF/c-Met signalling, targeted by angiotensin IV analogues such as dihexa, is a candidate Alzheimer's mechanism.
Model & design
Preclinical rodent in-vivo study with review elements
Selank (Tuftsin Analog)
Neuro & cognitive2015Study
Optimization of the treatment of anxiety disorders with selank
Medvedev VE, et al. · Zhurnal Nevrologii i Psikhiatrii imeni S.S. Korsakova, 2015
Key takeaway
Compared phenazepam monotherapy with combined selank and phenazepam treatment in patients with anxiety disorders.
Model & design
Comparative clinical study
GHK-Cu (Copper Tripeptide-1) + GLOW (GHK-Cu + BPC-157 + TB-500)
Dermal & structural2015Study
GHK Peptide as a Natural Modulator of Multiple Cellular Pathways in Skin Regeneration
Pickart L, et al. · BioMed Research International, 2015
Key takeaway
Reviewed matrix synthesis, wound-healing and gene-expression findings reported for the copper tripeptide.
Model & design
Narrative review
GHK-Cu (Copper Tripeptide-1) +2 more
Tissue repair2015Study
Tripeptide-copper complex GHK-Cu (II) transiently improved healing outcome in a rat model of ACL reconstruction
Fu SC, et al. · Journal of Orthopaedic Research, 2015
Key takeaway
Randomised animal study of intra-articular copper tripeptide on graft laxity and stiffness after ACL reconstruction.
Model & design
Randomised controlled animal (rat) study
Dihexa (N-Hexanoic-Tyr-Ile-(6) Aminohexanoic Amide)
Most citedNeuro & cognitive2014Study
The Procognitive and Synaptogenic Effects of Angiotensin IV-Derived Peptides Are Dependent on Activation of the Hepatocyte Growth Factor/c-Met System
Benoist CC, et al. · Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, 2014
Key takeaway
Reported that dihexa and related angiotensin IV-derived peptides enhanced memory and synapse formation in rodents through HGF/c-Met receptor activation.
Model & design
Preclinical rodent in-vivo and in-vitro study
Tesamorelin (GHRH(1-44) Analog)
Growth axis2014Study
Effects of Tesamorelin on Visceral Fat and Liver Fat
Stanley TL, et al. · JAMA, 2014
Key takeaway
Reported hepatic fat fraction and visceral adipose tissue change with a GHRH analogue versus placebo.
Model & design
Randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial
GHK-Cu (Copper Tripeptide-1) +2 more
Dermal & structural2014Study
GHK and DNA: Resetting the Human Genome to Health
Pickart L, Vasquez-Soltero JM, Margolina A · BioMed Research International, 2014
Key takeaway
Pickart's synthesis of GHK copper-binding chemistry and the gene-expression work underpinning later reviews.
Model & design
Review
Ipamorelin (GHSR-1a Selective Pentapeptide)
Growth axis2014Study
Prospective, randomized, controlled, proof-of-concept study of the ghrelin mimetic ipamorelin for the management of postoperative ileus in bowel resection patients
Beck DE, et al. · International Journal of Colorectal Disease, 2014
Key takeaway
Tested the ghrelin-receptor agonist for gastrointestinal recovery after bowel resection surgery.
Model & design
Randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled proof-of-concept trial
IGF-1 LR3 (Long R3 Insulin-Like Growth Factor-1)
Neuro & cognitive2014Study
Safety, pharmacokinetics, and preliminary assessment of efficacy of mecasermin (recombinant human IGF-1) for the treatment of Rett syndrome
Khwaja OS, et al. · PNAS, 2014
Key takeaway
Phase 1 evaluation of recombinant human IGF-1 safety and pharmacokinetics in girls with Rett syndrome.
Model & design
Open-label phase 1 safety and pharmacokinetic trial
IGF-1 LR3 (Long R3 Insulin-Like Growth Factor-1)
Neuro & cognitive2014Study
A pilot controlled trial of insulin-like growth factor-1 in children with Phelan-McDermid syndrome
Kolevzon A, et al. · Molecular Autism, 2014
Key takeaway
Crossover pilot trial of recombinant human IGF-1 on social and behavioural measures.
Model & design
Randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled crossover pilot trial
Selank (Tuftsin Analog)
Neuro & cognitive2014Study
A comparison of the anxiolytic effect and tolerability of selank and phenazepam in the treatment of anxiety disorders
Medvedev VE, et al. · Zhurnal Nevrologii i Psikhiatrii, 2014
Key takeaway
Compared the heptapeptide with a benzodiazepine comparator on anxiety scores and tolerability.
Model & design
Randomised comparator clinical trial
Dihexa (N-Hexanoic-Tyr-Ile-(6) Aminohexanoic Amide)
Neuro & cognitive2013Study
Evaluation of metabolically stabilized angiotensin IV analogs as procognitive/antidementia agents
McCoy AT, et al. · Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, 2013
Key takeaway
Reported hepatocyte growth factor / c-Met dependent synaptogenic activity of stabilised angiotensin IV analogues in rodent models. A subsequent journal Notice of Concern applies to this article.
Model & design
Preclinical medicinal-chemistry and rodent behavioural study
GHK-Cu (Copper Tripeptide-1) + GLOW (GHK-Cu + BPC-157 + TB-500)
Most citedDermal & structural2012Study
The Human Tripeptide GHK-Cu in Prevention of Oxidative Stress and Degenerative Conditions of Aging
Pickart L, Vasquez-Soltero JM, Margolina A · Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity, 2012
Key takeaway
Reviewed GHK-Cu gene-expression and antioxidant findings reported across the literature.
Model & design
Review
Tesamorelin (GHRH(1-44) Analog) + CJC-1295 (No DAC) + Ipamorelin
Most citedNeuro & cognitive2012Study
Effects of growth hormone-releasing hormone on cognitive function in adults with mild cognitive impairment and healthy older adults
Baker LD, et al. · Archives of Neurology, 2012
Key takeaway
Reported executive-function and memory measures after 20 weeks of GHRH administration versus placebo.
Model & design
Randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial
KPV (α-MSH C-Terminal Tripeptide)
Immune & inflammatory2012Study
Inhibition of cellular and systemic inflammation cues in human bronchial epithelial cells by melanocortin-related peptides: mechanism of KPV action and a role for MC3R agonists
Land SC · International Journal of Physiology, Pathophysiology and Pharmacology, 2012
Key takeaway
Characterised NF-κB-related anti-inflammatory signalling of the KPV tripeptide in a human epithelial cell model.
Model & design
In-vitro human cell culture study
TB-500 (Thymosin β-4 Fragment) + KLOW (KPV + LL-37 + Orexin-A + BPC-157 + TB-500)
Tissue repair2012Study
Thymosin Beta 4 as a Regenerative Peptide
Goldstein AL, Kleinman HK · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 2012
Key takeaway
Mechanistic review of repair, cell migration, angiogenesis and inflammation.
Model & design
Review
TB-500 (Thymosin β-4 Fragment)
Tissue repair2012Study
Doping Control Analysis of TB-500
Esposito S, et al. · Drug Testing and Analysis, 2012
Key takeaway
Confirms TB-500 is a synthetic derivative discussed in performance settings; does not establish clinical benefit.
Model & design
Analytical chemistry study
HCG (Human Chorionic Gonadotropin)
Growth axis2012Study
Addition of recombinant follicle-stimulating hormone to human chorionic gonadotropin treatment in adolescents and young adults with hypogonadotropic hypogonadism promotes normal testicular growth
Sinisi AA, et al. · Fertility and Sterility, 2012
Key takeaway
Observed that adding recombinant FSH to hCG promoted testicular growth and supported early spermatogenesis relative to hCG alone.
Model & design
Interventional clinical cohort study
KPV (α-MSH C-Terminal Tripeptide)
Immune & inflammatory2012Study
Inhibition of cellular and systemic inflammation cues in human bronchial epithelial cells by melanocortin-related peptides: mechanism of KPV action
Land SC · International Journal of Physiology, Pathophysiology and Pharmacology, 2012
Key takeaway
Reported suppression of NF-κB-linked inflammatory signalling in human bronchial epithelial cells and proposed an MC3R-dependent mechanism.
Model & design
In-vitro human cell study
BPC-157 (Body Protection Compound-157)
Tissue repair2011Study
The promoting effect of pentadecapeptide BPC 157 on tendon healing involves tendon outgrowth
Chang CH, et al. · Journal of Applied Physiology, 2011
Key takeaway
Reported increased tendon fibroblast outgrowth and migration in a rat Achilles model.
Model & design
In-vitro and rodent in-vivo study
Glutathione (Reduced, GSH)
Mitochondrial & longevity2011Study
Intravenous glutathione prevents renal oxidative stress after coronary angiography more effectively than oral N-acetylcysteine
Saitoh T, et al. · Heart, 2011
Key takeaway
Found intravenous glutathione reduced renal oxidative stress after coronary angiography more than oral N-acetylcysteine.
Model & design
Randomised controlled clinical trial
Tesamorelin (GHRH(1-44) Analog)
Most citedGrowth axis2010Study
Effects of Tesamorelin on Visceral Fat: Pooled Analysis of Two Phase 3 Trials
Falutz J, et al. · Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, 2010
Key takeaway
Pooled analysis of 806 participants reporting visceral adipose tissue change versus placebo.
Model & design
Pooled analysis of two phase 3 randomised trials
TB-500 (Thymosin β-4 Fragment) + KLOW (KPV + LL-37 + Orexin-A + BPC-157 + TB-500)
Tissue repair2010Study
Animal studies with thymosin beta4, a multifunctional tissue repair and regeneration peptide
Goldstein AL, et al. · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 2010
Key takeaway
Reviewed the animal studies that established thymosin beta-4's tissue-repair roles and framed later human wound-healing trials.
Model & design
Review of preclinical animal studies
BPC-157 (Body Protection Compound-157) + GLOW (GHK-Cu + BPC-157 + TB-500)
Tissue repair2010Study
Modulatory effect of gastric pentadecapeptide BPC 157 on angiogenesis in muscle and tendon healing
Seiwerth S, et al. · Journal of Orthopaedic Research, 2010
Key takeaway
Reported BPC 157 modulated VEGF-related angiogenesis during muscle and tendon healing in rats.
Model & design
Preclinical rodent in-vivo study
Glutathione (Reduced, GSH)
Mitochondrial & longevity2009Study
Randomized, double-blind, pilot evaluation of intravenous glutathione in Parkinson's disease
Hauser RA, et al. · Movement Disorders, 2009
Key takeaway
Evaluated intravenous glutathione in Parkinson's disease and reported only modest symptomatic change in a small pilot cohort.
Model & design
Randomised double-blind placebo-controlled pilot trial
KPV (α-MSH C-Terminal Tripeptide)
Most citedImmune & inflammatory2008Study
PepT1-mediated tripeptide KPV uptake reduces intestinal inflammation
Dalmasso G, et al. · Gastroenterology, 2008
Key takeaway
Reported reduced inflammatory signalling in colitis models following PepT1-mediated KPV uptake.
Model & design
Cell-culture and rodent colitis models
GHK-Cu (Copper Tripeptide-1) + GLOW (GHK-Cu + BPC-157 + TB-500)
Dermal & structural2008Study
The Human Tripeptide GHK and Tissue Remodeling
Pickart L · Journal of Biomaterials Science, Polymer Edition, 2008
Key takeaway
Foundational review describing wound-healing and skin-remodelling research.
Model & design
Review
KPV (α-MSH C-Terminal Tripeptide)
Immune & inflammatory2008Study
KPV in Experimental Colitis
Kannengiesser K, et al. · Inflammatory Bowel Diseases, 2008
Key takeaway
Reported anti-inflammatory effects across two murine colitis models; no persuasive human efficacy trials exist.
Model & design
Rodent colitis models
Selank (Tuftsin Analog)
Neuro & cognitive2008Study
Selank Compared With Medazepam in Anxiety Disorders
Zozulia AA, et al. · Zhurnal Nevrologii i Psikhiatrii, 2008
Key takeaway
Small comparative study in 62 patients; promising but short of modern efficacy standards.
Model & design
Comparative clinical study
KPV (α-MSH C-Terminal Tripeptide) + KLOW (KPV + LL-37 + Orexin-A + BPC-157 + TB-500)
Immune & inflammatory2008Study
Melanocortin-derived tripeptide KPV has anti-inflammatory potential in murine models of inflammatory bowel disease
Kannengiesser K, et al. · Inflammatory Bowel Diseases, 2008
Key takeaway
Reported KPV reduced colitis severity in murine models of inflammatory bowel disease.
Model & design
Preclinical rodent in-vivo study
Tesamorelin (GHRH(1-44) Analog)
Most citedGrowth axis2007Study
Metabolic effects of a growth hormone-releasing factor in patients with HIV
Falutz J, et al. · New England Journal of Medicine, 2007
Key takeaway
Reported visceral adipose tissue change with a GHRH analogue versus placebo.
Model & design
Phase 3, randomised, placebo-controlled trial
TB-500 (Thymosin β-4 Fragment) + GLOW (GHK-Cu + BPC-157 + TB-500)
Tissue repair2007Study
Recombinant thymosin beta 4 can promote full-thickness cutaneous wound healing
Philp D, et al. · Journal of Investigative Dermatology, 2007
Key takeaway
Demonstrated recombinant thymosin beta-4 promoted full-thickness cutaneous wound healing in a rodent model.
Model & design
Preclinical rodent in-vivo study
Semax (ACTH(4-7) Pro-Gly-Pro Analog)
Most citedNeuro & cognitive2006Study
Semax, an analogue of ACTH(4-10) with cognitive effects, regulates BDNF and trkB expression
Dolotov OV, et al. · Brain Research, 2006
Key takeaway
Reported BDNF and trkB expression changes in rat hippocampus following peptide administration.
Model & design
Rodent neurobiology study
CJC-1295 (No DAC) + Ipamorelin
Growth axis2006Study
Prolonged stimulation of growth hormone and IGF-I secretion by CJC-1295
Teichman SL, et al. · Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, 2006
Key takeaway
Reported sustained GH and IGF-I elevations following a long-acting GHRH analogue.
Model & design
Randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled human study
CJC-1295 (No DAC) + Ipamorelin
Growth axis2006Study
Pulsatile Growth Hormone Secretion After CJC-1295 Administration
Ionescu M, Frohman LA · Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, 2006
Key takeaway
Reported that pulsatile GH secretion persisted while basal GH concentrations rose considerably.
Model & design
Human pharmacodynamic study
GHK-Cu (Copper Tripeptide-1) + GLOW (GHK-Cu + BPC-157 + TB-500)
Dermal & structural2006Study
Topical Copper Tripeptide After Laser Resurfacing
Study authors · Dermatologic Surgery, 2006
Key takeaway
Useful negative human evidence: topical copper peptide did not significantly improve post-procedure outcomes.
Model & design
Randomised split-face human study
HCG (Human Chorionic Gonadotropin)
Growth axis2006Study
The relative roles of follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone in maintaining spermatogonial maturation and spermiation in normal men
McLachlan RI, et al. · Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, 2006
Key takeaway
Separated the contributions of FSH and hCG/LH-driven intratesticular testosterone across distinct stages of spermatogenesis in normal men.
Model & design
Randomised clinical intervention study
BPC-157 (Body Protection Compound-157)
Tissue repair2006Study
Achilles detachment in rat and stable gastric pentadecapeptide BPC 157: promoted tendon-to-bone healing and opposed corticosteroid aggravation
Staresinic M, et al. · Journal of Orthopaedic Research, 2006
Key takeaway
Showed BPC 157 promoted tendon-to-bone healing after Achilles detachment and offset corticosteroid-impaired healing in rats.
Model & design
Preclinical rodent in-vivo study
PT-141 (Bremelanotide, Melanocortin Receptor Agonist)
Growth axis2006Study
An effect on the subjective sexual response in premenopausal women with sexual arousal disorder by bremelanotide (PT-141), a melanocortin receptor agonist
Diamond LE, et al. · The Journal of Sexual Medicine, 2006
Key takeaway
Measured subjective and physiologic arousal responses after a single intranasal dose of the melanocortin receptor agonist.
Model & design
Randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled crossover study
Semax (ACTH(4-7) Pro-Gly-Pro Analog)
Neuro & cognitive2006Study
Semax, an analog of ACTH(4-10) with cognitive effects, regulates BDNF and trkB expression in the rat hippocampus
Dolotov OV, et al. · Brain Research, 2006
Key takeaway
Measured hippocampal neurotrophin signalling gene expression after acute Semax administration in rats.
Model & design
Preclinical rodent gene expression study
Oxytocin Acetate (Oxytocin Peptide Hormone)
Most citedNeuro & cognitive2005Study
Oxytocin increases trust in humans
Kosfeld M, et al. · Nature, 2005
Key takeaway
Reported behavioural economics findings following intranasal administration in human participants.
Model & design
Randomised, double-blind human behavioural study
TB-500 (Thymosin β-4 Fragment) + Wolverine (BPC-157 + TB-500)
Most citedTissue repair2004Study
Thymosin beta4 activates integrin-linked kinase and promotes cardiac cell migration, survival and cardiac repair
Bock-Marquette I, et al. · Nature, 2004
Key takeaway
Reported integrin-linked kinase / Akt activation and improved cell survival and migration in murine cardiac injury models.
Model & design
In-vitro cell and murine in-vivo study
TB-500 (Thymosin β-4 Fragment) + KLOW (KPV + LL-37 + Orexin-A + BPC-157 + TB-500)
Most citedTissue repair2004Study
Thymosin β4 activates integrin-linked kinase and promotes cardiac cell migration, survival and repair
Bock-Marquette I, et al. · Nature, 2004
Key takeaway
Described actin-sequestering peptide activity on cell migration and survival in a cardiac injury model.
Model & design
Preclinical in-vivo and cell-culture study
TB-500 (Thymosin β-4 Fragment) +2 more
Most citedTissue repair2004Study
Thymosin beta4 promotes angiogenesis, wound healing, and hair follicle development
Malinda KM, et al. · Journal of Investigative Dermatology, 2004
Key takeaway
Reported thymosin beta-4 promoted angiogenesis, accelerated wound healing and stimulated hair follicle development in rodents.
Model & design
Preclinical rodent in-vivo study
AOD9604 (hGH 176-191 Fragment)
Metabolic & incretin2004Study
AOD-9604 Metabolic
Wilding J · Current Opinion in Investigational Drugs, 2004
Key takeaway
Reviewed the preclinical and early clinical development of the C-terminal growth hormone fragment as an anti-obesity candidate.
Model & design
Review of preclinical and early-phase clinical development
BPC-157 (Body Protection Compound-157) + KLOW (KPV + LL-37 + Orexin-A + BPC-157 + TB-500)
Most citedTissue repair2003Study
Gastric pentadecapeptide BPC 157 accelerates healing of transected rat Achilles tendon and in vitro stimulates tendocytes growth
Staresinic M, et al. · Journal of Orthopaedic Research, 2003
Key takeaway
Found BPC 157 accelerated healing of transected Achilles tendon in rats and stimulated tendon cell growth in vitro.
Model & design
Preclinical rodent in-vivo and in-vitro study
Selank (Tuftsin Analog)
Neuro & cognitive2003Study
Anxiolytic activity of the peptide Selank and its influence on monoamine metabolism
Kozlovskii II, Danchev ND · Neuroscience and Behavioral Physiology, 2003
Key takeaway
Reported behavioural and monoamine findings for a tuftsin analogue in rodent anxiety models.
Model & design
Rodent behavioural pharmacology study
Glutathione (Reduced, GSH)
Most citedMitochondrial & longevity2002Study
Effect of glutathione infusion on leg arterial circulation, cutaneous microcirculation, and pain-free walking distance in patients with peripheral obstructive arterial disease
Arosio E, et al. · Mayo Clinic Proceedings, 2002
Key takeaway
Reported twice-daily intravenous glutathione improved macro- and microcirculatory measures and pain-free walking distance in peripheral arterial disease.
Model & design
Randomised double-blind placebo-controlled trial
Glutathione (Reduced, GSH)
Mitochondrial & longevity2002Study
Neuroprotective effect of reduced glutathione on oxaliplatin-based chemotherapy in advanced colorectal cancer
Cascinu S, et al. · Journal of Clinical Oncology, 2002
Key takeaway
Reported glutathione reduced oxaliplatin-induced peripheral neurotoxicity without compromising chemotherapy efficacy.
Model & design
Randomised double-blind placebo-controlled trial
AOD9604 (hGH 176-191 Fragment)
Metabolic & incretin2001Study
The effects of human GH and its lipolytic fragment (AOD9604) on lipid metabolism following chronic treatment in obese mice and beta(3)-AR knock-out mice
Heffernan M, et al. · Endocrinology, 2001
Key takeaway
Reported changes in adipose lipolysis and body composition in rodent models treated with the C-terminal GH fragment.
Model & design
Controlled rodent study, including beta-3 adrenoceptor knock-out animals
AOD9604 (hGH 176-191 Fragment)
Metabolic & incretin2001Study
The effects of human GH and its lipolytic fragment (AOD9604) on lipid metabolism
Heffernan MA, et al. · Endocrinology, 2001
Key takeaway
Reported lipolytic and anti-lipogenic activity of the C-terminal hGH fragment in rodents.
Model & design
Rodent in-vivo study
IGF-1 LR3 (Long R3 Insulin-Like Growth Factor-1)
Growth axis2001Study
IGF-1 Biology and Growth
Le Roith D, et al. · Endocrine Reviews, 2001
Key takeaway
Authoritative background on native IGF-1 physiology; not direct evidence for the Long R3 analogue.
Model & design
Review
AOD9604 (hGH 176-191 Fragment)
Metabolic & incretin2001Study
Metabolic studies of a synthetic lipolytic domain (AOD9604) of human growth hormone
Heffernan MA, et al. · Hormone and Metabolic Research, 2001
Key takeaway
Reported that daily AOD9604 reduced body weight gain and increased lipolysis in obese Zucker rats without growth-promoting effects.
Model & design
Preclinical rodent in-vivo study
IGF-1 LR3 (Long R3 Insulin-Like Growth Factor-1)
Metabolic & incretin2001Study
Insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I) analogue, LR(3)IGF-I, ameliorates the loss of body weight but not of skeletal muscle during food restriction
Tomas FM, et al. · Growth Hormone & IGF Research, 2001
Key takeaway
Measured body composition responses to the long-acting IGF-I analogue during caloric restriction in rats.
Model & design
Preclinical rodent metabolic study
AOD9604 (hGH 176-191 Fragment)
Metabolic & incretin2000Study
Increase of fat oxidation and weight loss in obese mice caused by chronic treatment with human growth hormone or a modified C-terminal fragment
Ng FM, et al. · International Journal of Obesity, 2000
Key takeaway
Found chronic AOD9604 treatment increased fat oxidation and reduced weight gain in obese mice comparably to full-length hGH.
Model & design
Preclinical rodent in-vivo and in-vitro study
TB-500 (Thymosin β-4 Fragment)
Tissue repair1999Study
Thymosin β4 accelerates wound healing
Malinda KM, et al. · Journal of Investigative Dermatology, 1999
Key takeaway
Reported accelerated keratinocyte migration and contraction in dermal wound models.
Model & design
Rodent wound-healing study
Ipamorelin (GHSR-1a Selective Pentapeptide) + CJC-1295 (No DAC) + Ipamorelin
Growth axis1999Study
Pharmacokinetic and Pharmacodynamic Modeling of Ipamorelin in Healthy Volunteers
Gobburu JV, et al. · Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, 1999
Key takeaway
Human modelling of a discrete GH release episode; body-composition outcomes were not assessed.
Model & design
Human pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic modelling study
orexin-b
Most citedNeuro & cognitive1998Study
Orexins and orexin receptors: a family of hypothalamic neuropeptides and G protein-coupled receptors that regulate feeding behavior
Sakurai T, et al. · Cell, 1998
Key takeaway
Original identification of orexin-A and orexin-B and their two G-protein-coupled receptors, with reported effects on feeding behaviour in rodents.
Model & design
Peptide isolation, receptor deorphanisation and rodent studies
Ipamorelin (GHSR-1a Selective Pentapeptide) + CJC-1295 (No DAC) + Ipamorelin
Most citedGrowth axis1998Study
Ipamorelin, the first selective growth hormone secretagogue
Raun K, et al. · European Journal of Endocrinology, 1998
Key takeaway
Characterised selective GH release without the ACTH and prolactin release seen with earlier secretagogues.
Model & design
Preclinical pharmacology study
orexin-b
Neuro & cognitive1998Study
The hypocretins: hypothalamus-specific peptides with neuroexcitatory activity
de Lecea L, et al. · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 1998
Key takeaway
Independent discovery of the same peptide family, reporting neuroexcitatory activity on hypothalamic neurons in vitro.
Model & design
Molecular cloning with in-vitro electrophysiology
orexin-b
Neuro & cognitive1998Study
Neurons containing hypocretin (orexin) project to multiple neuronal systems
Peyron C, et al. · Journal of Neuroscience, 1998
Key takeaway
Mapped orexin neuron projections across arousal, autonomic and neuroendocrine circuits in the rodent brain.
Model & design
Immunohistochemical neuroanatomical mapping study
Ipamorelin (GHSR-1a Selective Pentapeptide) + CJC-1295 (No DAC) + Ipamorelin
Growth axis1998Study
Pharmacokinetic evaluation of ipamorelin and other peptidyl growth hormone secretagogues with emphasis on nasal absorption
Raun K, et al. · Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, 1998
Key takeaway
Compared pharmacokinetics of ipamorelin with other GH-releasing peptides, including nasal absorption, in rats.
Model & design
Preclinical rodent in-vivo study
Ipamorelin (GHSR-1a Selective Pentapeptide)
Growth axis1998Study
A new series of highly potent growth hormone-releasing peptides derived from ipamorelin
Raun K, et al. · European Journal of Endocrinology, 1998
Key takeaway
Described ipamorelin-derived analogues developed for oral bioavailability while retaining GH-releasing potency.
Model & design
Preclinical in-vitro and in-vivo study
Ipamorelin (GHSR-1a Selective Pentapeptide) + CJC-1295 (No DAC) + Ipamorelin
Growth axis1998Study
Ipamorelin, the first selective growth hormone secretagogue
Raun K, et al. · European Journal of Endocrinology, 1998
Key takeaway
Original pharmacological characterisation reporting growth hormone release with minimal cortisol, prolactin or ACTH response.
Model & design
Preclinical pharmacological characterisation
Semax (ACTH(4-7) Pro-Gly-Pro Analog)
Neuro & cognitive1996Study
Synthetic ACTH analogue Semax displays nootropic-like activity in humans
Kaplan AY, et al. · Neuroscience Research Communications, 1996
Key takeaway
Reported nootropic and antihypoxic EEG effects of semax in human volunteers after hyperventilation-induced hypoxia.
Model & design
Clinical experimental study in volunteers
IGF-1 LR3 (Long R3 Insulin-Like Growth Factor-1)
Growth axis1996Study
Superior potency of infused IGF-I analogues which bind poorly to IGF-binding proteins is maintained when administered by injection
Tomas FM, et al. · Journal of Endocrinology, 1996
Key takeaway
Found LR3-IGF-I retained greater anabolic potency than native IGF-I when injected, attributed to reduced IGFBP binding.
Model & design
Preclinical rodent in-vivo study
GHK-Cu (Copper Tripeptide-1) +2 more
Most citedDermal & structural1993Study
In vivo stimulation of connective tissue accumulation by the tripeptide-copper complex glycyl-L-histidyl-L-lysine-Cu2+
Maquart FX, et al. · Journal of Clinical Investigation, 1993
Key takeaway
Reported increased collagen and glycosaminoglycan accumulation in experimental rat wounds.
Model & design
Rodent in-vivo wound model
IGF-1 LR3 (Long R3 Insulin-Like Growth Factor-1)
Growth axis1993Study
Anabolic effects of insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I) and an IGF-I variant in normal female rats
Tomas FM, et al. · Journal of Endocrinology, 1993
Key takeaway
Compared anabolic effects of native IGF-I and the LR3 variant on growth and nitrogen retention in rats.
Model & design
Preclinical rodent in-vivo study
BPC-157 (Body Protection Compound-157) +2 more
Tissue repair1993Study
The beneficial effect of BPC 157, a 15 amino acid peptide BPC fragment, on gastric and duodenal lesions induced by restraint stress, cysteamine and 96% ethanol in rats
Sikiric P, et al. · Journal of Physiology (Paris), 1993
Key takeaway
Reported BPC 157 protected against gastric and duodenal mucosal lesions across several experimental injury models in rats.
Model & design
Preclinical rodent in-vivo study
IGF-1 LR3 (Long R3 Insulin-Like Growth Factor-1)
Growth axis1992Study
Insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I) and especially IGF-I variants are anabolic in dexamethasone-treated rats
Tomas FM, et al. · Biochemical Journal, 1992
Key takeaway
Compared IGF-I analogues with reduced binding-protein affinity on nitrogen balance in rodents.
Model & design
Rodent in-vivo study
Methylcobalamin (Vitamin B12 Coenzyme Form)
Neuro & cognitive1992Study
Effects of methylcobalamin on diabetic neuropathy
Yaqub BA, et al. · Clinical Neurology and Neurosurgery, 1992
Key takeaway
Reported improvement in nerve conduction measures and symptoms in diabetic neuropathy patients treated with methylcobalamin.
Model & design
Clinical interventional study
HCG (Human Chorionic Gonadotropin)
Growth axis1986Study
Chronic human chorionic gonadotropin administration in normal men: evidence that follicle-stimulating hormone is necessary for the maintenance of quantitatively normal spermatogenesis in man
Matsumoto AM, et al. · Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, 1986
Key takeaway
Showed chronic hCG administration alone, without FSH, was insufficient to maintain quantitatively normal spermatogenesis in men.
Model & design
Clinical interventional study
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